Tobacco Smoking Among Teenagers: Issues and Remedies

SAMPLE OF ESSAY CIVIL ENGINEERING (100L) GST 113(philosophy and human existence) Review of the chapter one (1) of olusegun oladipo (thinking about philosophy) Philosophy is not easy to define because it is difficult to identify the subject matter of it, on like biology, political science and so on. Also we cannot say philosophical method, the way we talk of scientific method. But according to the preface of the book, philosophy is an intellectual Endeavour to acquire self knowledge.Three questions comes to mind and best summarize the intellectual Endeavour called philosophy, 1) formulation or construction of world view, 2) critical thinking and, 3) the rational, but non-scientific, quest for understanding. PHILOSOPHY AS WORLD VIEW – These are not arbitrary statement or products of fantasy. Rather they are products of reflection and speculation, which most people take for granted in their everyday lives. According to G. Chatalian, he conceived philosophy â€Å"essentially as t he pursuit of wisdom† and consequently, â€Å"the search for the guide to life. For a genuine philosopher, two things are required in this view, they are; Insight and Commitment to human well-being. Considering the handbook of Epictetus, 1) believing that what you have is yours and what you don’t have is on its own, you will have no enemies, life will go easy. 2) Do not seek life to go your own way instead let it happen as do happen and life will be easy. PHILOSOPHY AS CRITICAL THINKING – This entails that human knowledge is always partial.If this is the case then the best intellectual attitude is that which does not take any believe or assumption for granted, but is ready to examine the grounds for the validation of a belief or opinion that is presented as being true or possible. It is this attitude that the philosophical activities of critical thinking promotes. THE ENTERPRISE OF PHILOSOPHER – According to Dilthey, â€Å"the philosophic spirit† i s both critical and reconstructive. Philosophers use or dominate their expertise by addressing certain questions, typically called philosophical questions.These questions are beyond the scope of specific areas of knowledge. The primary goal of philosopher in addressing these questions is, in the manner of Socrates. Thus, philosophy is a kind of a rational inquiry that begins in doubt and ends in the generation of beliefs. TOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY – LANGUAGE and LOGIC are the two key tools of philosophy. According to A. J. Ayer’s point, language is the means to the achievement of the kind of clarity of thought without which the philosophical enterprise can hardly succeed language matters in philosophy because much of what philosophers do involves conceptual elucidation.Logic also matters in the enterprise because much of philosophy has to do with providing good reasons for our view or positions. Secondly it is important because philosophers are generally concerns with the lo gical assessment of arguments. USE OF PHILOSOPHY – â€Å"Elevation† of mankind. The elevation as used in the context can be defined in terms of; enlightenment, open-mindedness, breading of sensibility and so on.Also, it stimulates people to think about the basic problems of existence as they affect them as individuals and as social collectives. PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE IN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT – philosophy has a very importance role to play in the production, clarification and propagation of the ideas and values guiding the thought and life of people. Also it promotes the kind of self understanding that would provide some basic for determining the kind of social-cultural that will enable Africans with the challenges of contemporary life.

Pros and Cons of Using a Plus-Minus Grading System

Student and Faculty Views of Plus-Minus Grading Systems Working Paper Series—07-11 | December 2007 Jim Morgan (928) 523-7385 James. [email  protected] edu Gary Tallman Robert Williams All professors at: Northern Arizona University The W. A. Franke College of Business PO Box 15066 Flagstaff, AZ 86011. 5066 Student and Faculty Views of Plus-Minus Grading Systems Introduction Many colleges and universities have adopted or are considering adopting a grading system that provides a larger number of marking choices than the A through F whole-letter system. This usually takes the form of a plus-minus (+/-) grading system in one version or another.While a variety of reasons have been put forth for the move to +/- grades, a key motivation is the belief that a +/- grading system can either reverse the progression of grade inflation or counter its effects by establishing more grade choices so that performance can be more effectively differentiated. This paper first reviews studies of th e prevalence in American colleges and universities of +/- grading systems and, perhaps more importantly, the prevalence of schools not using +/- systems who could potentially benefit from a shift to use of this form of grading system.Because of limitations found in available data, a targeted analysis of grading systems of a selected set of universities has been conducted. The results of this secondary research are briefly reported in the second section below. Results of the first two sections indicate that there remains a substantial set of schools that do not currently utilize +/- grading and might be considering a shift to this form of grading system. Next the paper reviews literature dealing with faculty and student perceptions of +/- grading systems and the effects of these systems on the level and distribution of grades and on student effort.Substantial differences in the perceptions of the two groups are found. The major focus of this paper is the analysis of how faculty and s tudent perceptions of the benefits of a +/- grading system differ and what the motivations for these differences might be. The technique used to explore these questions is a survey of both faculty and student reactions to a hypothesized change to a +/- grading system at a mid-size public university in the Southwest. The results indicate that the faculty is much more supportive of a change than are students.Insights as to why each group views the effects of the hypothesized change differently are explored in the paper with possible explanations for the differences found in expectancy theory, a popular theory of human motivation that suggests students and faculty will each react to the change in a way that is likely to produce positive benefits for them, and in resistance to change theory which seeks to identify the factors causing resistance among groups affected by a change. Our study shows that each group perceives the effects of the change differently and that some students and fa culty members have very strong commitments to their views.Examination of the Extent of Use of +/- Grades A study by the American Association of College Registrar and Admissions Offices reported that 36% of institutions (both 2 and 4 year) in 1992 used pluses or minuses in grading whereas 56% of such institutions did so in 2002 [Brumfield, 2005]. Thirty-two institutions moved to a +/- system over the ten year period. Private schools were much more likely to use a +/- system than public schools. This continues the trend noted in the prior ten year period when a 12% increase in institutions using a +/system was noted [Riley, Checca, Singer, & Worthington, 1994].In order to further evaluate the use of +/- and other extended category grading systems, on-line catalogs of a representative sample of one fourth of all AACSB accredited business schools were reviewed to determine each school’s undergraduate grading policy. A total of 99 schools were surveyed, 71 of them public and 28 pr ivate. Table 1 shows the distribution of grading systems used. Three basic grading systems were identified: systems using pluses-minuses, systems using a single intermediate grade and traditional whole-letter grading systems of A, B, C, D, and either E or F.Note that about one third of the schools continue to use whole-letter only grading systems. Among public schools, 30 of 71 (42. 5 percent) use only whole-letter grading. Plus-minus grading systems are clearly the most prevalent type of grading system among this group of schools. To clarify the notation used below, the A+ to C+ system would use the grades A+, A, A-, B+, B, B-, C+, C , D, F, while an A+ to D- system would use A+, A, A-, B+, B, B-, C+, C, C-, D+, D, D-, F and so on. The plus or minus typically raises (lowers) the grade by . or . 33 grade points. As the table indicates, many schools 1 do not allow pluses and minuses across their full range of grades. The grade of A+ creates the possibility of a GPA greater than 4. 0 and, probably for this reason; only 9 of the 60 schools with a +/- system include an A+. Four of the 9 schools using the A+ resolve the GPA problem by recording the A+ as a 4. 0 when calculating GPAs, so that the A+ becomes just a notation on individual course grades. Schools also differ with respect to the bottom of the +/- range.Most frequently, pluses and minuses are used all the way down through the D-, however, due to issues relating to transfer grades and determining the grade required for satisfying prerequisites, a number of schools terminate the use of pluses and minuses with the D+ (they do not use a D-) and others stop at the C+ or even C- level. TABLE 1 Distribution of University Grading Systems Number of Schools Using 60 1 8 4 3 16 27 1 7 4 3 32 32 Plus and Minus Grades A+ thru C+ * A+ thru DA- thru C+ A- thru CA- thru D+ A- thru DB+ thru DSingle Intermediate Grade AB, BC & CD AB and BC Whole-letter Only A thru F The A+ grade is counted as a 4. 0 for 4 of the schools us ing an A+ Systems using a single intermediate grade are far less prevalent than the +/- systems. The single intermediate grade is typically listed either as the concatenation of the two grades it lies between, such as AB for the grade between an A and a B, or as a plus without a corresponding minus. In these systems the grade points awarded for the intermediate grade are half way between the two related whole-letter grades (a 3. 5 for an AB or a B+). Why the Movement to +/- Grading?The proportion of institutions using +/- grading systems increased by 12 percent from 1982 to 1992 [Riley, Checca, Singer, & Worthington, 1994] with the trend continuing. There are three reasons typically cited as motivation for universities to change to a +/- grading system. They are concerns over grade inflation, ability to differentiate between students and ability to motivate students to aspire to learn more. A substantial body of literature details the existence of grade inflation in American college s and universities.One study [Levine, 1994] surveyed 4,900 college graduates from 1969 to 1993 and found that the number of A’s awarded had quadrupled and the number of C’s had dropped by two thirds. +/grading shows some promise in reducing grade inflation. In a recent article the author cites evidence of other studies plus his own analysis of the experience of Berry College to conclude that the implementation of a +/- system halts and in some cases produces a minor reversal in grade inflation [Bressette, 2002]. This effect is not equal over all majors.Majors that traditionally have low GPA’s are affected less by a change to a +/- system than majors in a high GPA major [Bressette, 2002]). 2 Proponents of a +/- system also believe it better differentiates students and that it is fairer or more precise. Researchers have found that grades are more reliable indicators of student performance as the width of a grade interval is narrowed [Singleton & Smith, 1978]. The existence of grade inflation in combination with the traditional A-F grading system effectively reduces the grades available and widens the range of student performance represented by each grade.The introduction of +/- grades increases the grades available and narrows the interval for each grade. In majors where grading is more holistic however, faculty believe the additional grade choices create less precision in student evaluations [Quann, 1987]. It is also argued that students are motivated to work harder under a +/- system. Anecdotal evidence in the form of student quotes indicates that they must continue to work through the entire semester to earn a grade under the more refined +/- system.The chance of earning a higher grade may be a motivator (plus) but the risk of earning a lower grade (minus) might be an even stronger motivator according to one study [Cullen et al. , 1975]. Evidence to the contrary is present in a study of economics classes at a mid-size Midwestern universit y that concluded students who chose +/- grading were not significantly more motivated than students who did not [McClure & Spector, 2005]. Student and Faculty Attitudes Toward +/- Grading As noted above, the momentum is toward adoption of a +/- grading system.However, fully one third of all schools currently use a whole-letter grading system. As these schools contemplate a change to their grading system it will be important for them to recognize the differing perceptions of benefits and costs that major stakeholders have. The major focus of this paper is the analysis of how faculty and student perceptions of the benefits of a +/- grading system differ. A recent study of business school faculty and students identified a substantial gap between the expectations and perceptions of the two groups with respect to grading and academic rigor [McKendall et al. , 2006].In addition, articles and editorials in student newspapers of universities considering adopting +/- grades suggest that this type of change in grading policies is always controversial. Such changes are typically proposed by the faculty and often opposed by students [Brown Daily Herald, 2006]. Students have noted that the use of a +/- system that does not include an A+ grade tends to lower the GPAs of the best students since they potentially have many current A grades that could become A minuses, but relatively few B and lower grades that could be raised by the plus grade [Storelli-Castro, 2006; Daily Athenaeum, 2006].Perhaps the clearest evidence of how students view +/- grading versus traditional grading occurs when students have a choice in a particular class. Humboldt State University made the +/- system optional. Student choices were tracked in six introduction to programming classes. Students overwhelmingly chose the traditional grading system over the +/- system, although students who chose the +/- system earned more pluses than minuses [Dixon, 2004]. Students from another university were quoted as arguing that the +/- system would increase the intrinsic value of an ‘A’ and help in identifying the very best students [Bressette, 2002].A survey of faculty documenting their actual use of a voluntary +/- grading system conducted at Ball State University provides evidence of variation in faculty support for such a grading system [Malone, Nelson & Nelson, 2000]. The survey asked graduate faculty how extensively they used the +/- system. Seventy-six percent indicated it was used considerably with assistant professors and those at the university for 1-4 years indicating the heaviest usage. Full professors use it less as did those with over 15 years service.The colleges that used it most were Architecture, Communication Sciences and the Humanities. The colleges that used it the least were Business, Life Sciences, Physical Sciences and Psychology. Business used the +/- system far less than any other unit in the University. No explanation was proffered for the differences b y college. The differing perceptions of faculty by disciplines were noted in another study that concluded â€Å"Faculty believed that the meaning of a grade varies more across disciplines than across institutions† [Ekstrom & Villegas, 1994]. While the studies noted above point to a variety of student and faculty attitudes toward +/grading, for the most part these studies have not examined the conceptual bases for student and faculty attitudes. There are at least two theoretical perspectives that may be useful in explaining these attitudes. The first is resistance to change theory and the second is expectancy theory. Resistance to change theory is quite intuitive and simply states that affected parties tend to resist change to their environment, work or otherwise.Literature describing reasons for resistance to change is well established and many of the major elements cited today were identified many years ago. A 1966 American Management Association keynote presentation identif ied a number of factors that cause people to resent and resist change [Burns 1966]. While this presentation dealt with the work environment, many of the factors identified also apply to the type of change dealt with here. Here in paraphrased form, is a partial list of the factors identified: 1.The change was poorly communicated and the parties involved do not understand the purpose of the change. 2. The parties involved lacked any involvement in planning the change. 3. The belief that the cost of the change is too high versus the potential benefits to be received from the change. 4. The pervasive belief that the current way of doing things is perfectly adequate. 5. The fear that the new system will fail. 6. The failure to consider the habit patterns of those affected by the change and the impact of the change on those habit patterns.In a more recent study, Goltz and Hietapelto [2002] found that employees (or students in our most likely case) resist change when it decreases their pow er or degree of control over stimuli affecting them. A second theoretical explanation of why evolution to a +/- grading system would be resisted can be found in expectancy theory. Expectancy theory, first conceptualized by Vroom [1964] and relying on the work of earlier scholars such as Tolman [1932], Rotter [1954], and Atkinson [1956], represents a cognitive approach to explaining human behavior.The models picture human beings as active, thinking, learning and predicting creatures. People learn to perform certain behaviors (or at least increase the chance of performing the behavior) that they expect would lead to positive outcomes. Consequently, humans are not just products of their environment but they are active in attempting to understand the environment in terms of threats and opportunities. For example, students may perceive a change to +/- grading as a threat. Some of the studies cited above suggest that +/- systems not including an A+ grade do tend to reduce the grades of th e best students.More generally, students may believe that +/- grades serve to reinforce the importance of grades, that lower overall GPA’s will result from the change and that higher levels of incremental study time will be necessary to prosper under a +/- system. The expectations of lower GPA’s, also carries with it graduate school acceptance concerns as well. Finally, the issue of +/- grading is much more personal to students as they rightly understand that the effect of the change applies directly to them. Faculty, on the other hand, do not take the change nearly as personally.Faculty may perceive greater flexibility and greater justice in grading with a +/- system and they might also expect that the +/system would be more motivational to students which would cause them to have a favorable attitude toward a +/- grading system. Survey Methodology This section describes a survey of student and faculty opinions about the introduction of a +/grading system at a mid-size d university in the Southwest. The university currently uses a whole-letter grading system with only the grades A, B, C, D, and F.The variant of +/- grading system being considered is one that adds grades of A-, B+, B-, and C+ to the set of potential grades with + grades being recorded at . 3 points higher than the base grade (e. g. 3. 3 for a B+) and – grades being recorded at . 3 points less than the base grade. 4 Respondents were asked whether they Favored, Opposed or Didn’t Know About or Care About a change to the grading system that would utilize the +/- grading scheme described above. Those who either Favored or Opposed were then asked to rate the strength of their opinions as either: care only slightly, care somewhat strongly or care very strongly.The results of these two questions were combined to produce a 7 point scale with values ranging from Very Strongly Support to Very Strongly Oppose (see Table 2). Respondents were also asked to describe the reasons for their support or opposition. Results of this open ended question were recorded and categorized with up to two reasons being recorded for each respondent. In addition respondents were asked to provide additional information that might be related to their views of the proposed system. Students were asked to indicate their class standing, their GPA, and the college of their major.Faculty members were asked to indicate their college and their length of service at the university. The survey of students opinions was collected by a group of Marketing students who randomly solicited responses from students entering and leaving commonly used buildings across the campus. The survey of faculty was collected on-line through an e-mail solicitation. Examination of the demographic distribution of responses suggests that the respondents are broadly representative of the students and faculty respectively.The 1433 student responses represent just over 10 percent of the count of student on the surveye d campus, while the 433 faculty responses represents over 50 percent of the eligible pool of faculty members. Hypothesized Relationships Based upon the literature reviewed in the previous sections, the following hypotheses about faculty and student attitudes toward the introduction of +/- grades are proposed. H1 – Faculty are more supportive of a +/- system than students. There is some evidence that a move to a +/- grading system may reduce the progression of grade inflation or perhaps reverse it.Therefore, faculty who are concerned about the effects of grade inflation would be expected to be supportive of a +/- grading system. Based upon expectancy theory. Both students and faculty may have resistance to change reasons for opposing the new system, but these reasons are likely to be stronger for students. Students may view any change in the grading system imposed by faculty as a potential threat to their GPA. Students also are likely to feel less involved in the change and ha ve less understanding of the purpose for the change.Thus, students would be expected to resist the change to a +/- grading system. H2 – Freshmen will be more supportive of +/- grades than upperclassmen. Class standing can also be expected to affect student responses to a change in grading system. Upperclassmen have more experience with the current grading system. They may feel that they have learned how to work within that system effectively to optimize their grades. Resistance to change tends to increase, as individuals have more experience with and more of a stake in an existing system.Thus, we hypothesize that freshmen will be more favorable toward +/- grades than upperclassmen. H3 – As a student’s GPA increases, support for +/- grades decreases. Since most +/- grading systems, including the one described to our respondents, do not include an A+ grade, expectancy theory suggests that students with very high GPAs have a rational reason to believe that +/- grad es are more likely to lower than raise their GPAs. For example, consider a student who has earned As in 80 percent of her/his courses and Bs in the other 20 percent leading to a 3. 8 GPA.For that student, the new grading scheme could only lower and not raise 80 percent of her grades while, for the remaining 20 percent, the grade could be either higher (a B+) or lower (a B-). On the other hand, since the system proposed in this survey does not include a C-, a student who has earned 80 percent Cs and 20 percent Bs under the whole-letter system has 80 percent of his/her grades that could only be increased by 5 the +/- grading system. Therefore, we hypothesize that students with higher GPAs will be less favorable toward the use of +/- grades than student with lower GPAs.H4 – As the average grade issued in a student’s college increases, support for +/grades decreases. The average grade in the college where a student is majoring can also be expected to affect responses to +/ - grading. Students in colleges where a very high proportion of As are currently given would have reason to fear that +/- grades would lower average GPAs issued in their unit. In a college with a 3. 2 average grade we might expect that 40 percent or more of the grades issued are As and that 40 percent of grades could not increase, but could only be lowered by the introduction of a typical +/grading system.By comparison, a college with a 2. 7 average grade would be expected to be issuing much fewer As, so that use of +/- grades could potentially either raise or lower nearly all of that unit’s grades. In addition, at least one empirical study [Bresette, 2002] found this type of effect as discussed above. For this reason, we hypothesize that students, in keeping with the predictions of expectancy theory, will be less favorable toward +/- grades the higher the average grade issued by their college. H5 -Faculty support for +/- grades will become less favorable as tenure at the sch ool increases.Faculty views of +/- grades might be expected to vary with the length of time that a faculty member has taught under the current grading system. As a faculty member’s experience with using the existing grading system increases, they, like students, may become comfortable with that system and therefore may be more resistant to change. In addition this type of effect was found in one of the empirical studies cited above [Malone, Nelson, & Nelson, 2000]. H6 – Faulty support for +/- grades will be more favorable as average grades issued in their college increase.The grading culture of the college in which a faculty member teaches may also impact their views of +/- grades. Faculty in colleges with high average grades might logically feel a greater need for additional grading options to better reflect student performance, whereas faculty in colleges with lower average grades might feel that the current system provides adequate assessment of student performance. On the other hand, since faculty are responsible for issuing grades, differences in current grading practices across colleges tend to reflect the grading preferences of the faculty in those colleges.Faculty in colleges with high average grades may be less likely to feel that grade inflation is an important issue. Thus, faculty support for +/- grades may be either stronger or weaker in colleges with high average grades. We believe the desire for additional grading options will be the stronger of the two effects. Survey Results In analyzing the survey results, we will first look to see whether student and faculty opinions about the use of +/- grades differ. Table 2 below shows summary data about student and faculty opinions. There is a strong divergence between student and faculty opinions about the proposed use of +/- grades.Over half of faculty respondents support +/- grades at least somewhat strongly while only 15 percent of students share this level of support. Almost half of the student respondents oppose +/- grades at least somewhat strongly, and many of the remaining students are relatively indifferent to, rather than supportive of, +/- grades. A Chi-squared test of the null hypothesis that the distribution of faculty opinions and student opinions do not differ has been conducted and the null hypothesis is rejected at the . 0001 level, indicating that there is a significant difference between the opinions of the two groups thus supporting hypothesis one. TABLE 2: Distribution of Opinions of Students and Faculty About Use of +/- Grades Students Count Percentage 64 4. 4% 148 10. 3% 145 10. 1% 289 20. 0% 129 8. 9% 332 23. 0% 336 23. 3% 1443 100. 0% 0. 0001 Faculty Count Percentage 126 27. 0% 123 26. 4% 48 10. 3% 26 5. 6% 18 3. 9% 57 12. 2% 68 14. 6% 466 100. 0% Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don’t Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Chi-Square test p-value The next set of tables provides an analysis of the degree to which student opinions about +/grades vary across different categories of students.First we look at the effect of class standing, that is, do views differ between freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. Table 3 presents these results. The Chisquare test indicates that the distributions are significantly different and inspection of the table shows very clearly that sophomores and juniors tend to be most strongly opposed to use of +/- grades. Freshmen and seniors do not support use of +/- grades, but are less strong in their opposition and more likely to be indifferent or care only slightly about the grading alternatives.Sophomores and juniors may feel comfortable with the current grading system and be more reluctant to change, while freshmen have less familiarity with the existing system and seniors feel that they would not be personally affected by any change providing support for hypothesis two. TABLE 3: Student's Class Standing vs Student' s Opinion of Use of +/- Grades Freshman 5. 4% 11. 6% 13. 2% 22. 1% 7. 8% 19. 8% 20. 2% (258) 0. 0045 Sophomore 3. 2% 10. 3% 10. 6% 20. 1% 7. 1% 28. 0% 20. 6% (339) Junior 5. 3% 8. 2% 7. 4% 15. 6% 10. 3% 22. 5% 30. 7% (417) Senior 4. 1% 11. 5% 9. % 22. 1% 9. 9% 21. 9% 20. 7% (416) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don't Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Students in Category Chi-Square test p-value Table 4 summarizes the distribution of opinions among students in different grade point average categories. Since, the +/- grading system does not include an A+, students with very high GPAs might rationally assume that they personally have more to lose (through A-s and perhaps B-s) than they have to gain (through B+s), and thus oppose the change.The results of Table 4 support this idea, the Chi-square test indicates that students with differing GPAs do differ in their views of +/- grades and students with higher GPAs ar e systematically more inclined to oppose using +/- grades thus supporting hypothesis three. Student respondents were asked to indicate the college of their major. Since the classification of colleges differs substantially across universities this information is not directly comparable to other 7 universities. However, it would be of interest to know whether the grading rigor of a student’s college affects student opinions about +/- grading.Students in colleges which currently give many high grades may feel that they have more to lose from the use of +/- grades than students in other colleges. The university in question has six colleges. Two of them have issued grades which, on average, were below a 2. 8 over the last 3 academic years, two issued grades which were on average between 2. 8 and 3. 1 over that period, and two issued grades which were on average above a 3. 1 for that period. TABLE 4: Student's GPA vs Student's Opinion of Use of +/- Grades 2. 00 or Less 8. 7% 8. 7% 13. 0% 39. 1% 0. 0% 13. 0% 17. % 100. 0% (23) 0. 0001 3. 50 or More 3. 5% 9. 8% 9. 5% 15. 0% 8. 1% 26. 6% 27. 5% 100. 0% (346) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don’t Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Students in Category Chi-Square test p-value 2. 00-2. 49 5. 8% 9. 1% 9. 1% 33. 9% 10. 7% 16. 5% 14. 9% 100. 0% (121) 2. 50-2. 99 4. 3% 10. 6% 11. 1% 24. 7% 10. 6% 20. 1% 18. 5% 100. 0% (368) 3. 00-3. 49 4. 7% 10. 7% 9. 4% 15. 6% 8. 4% 24. 8% 26. 4% 100. 0% (572) Table 5 shows the distribution of student opinions across these categories.The Chi-square test for equal distribution does indicate that there is a significant difference in the distribution of responses. Opposition to +/- grades is strongest and support for them weakest among students in colleges issuing the highest average grades thus supporting hypothesis four. This result should be interpreted somewhat cautiously however, because of the natural co rrelation of average grade with the student’s own GPA examined in Table 4. That is, in general, students in colleges issuing high grades are more likely to have high GPAs.Next we examine how faculty opinions about +/- grades vary across different faculty categories. First the length of service at the university is examined. Much like the situation described for students, it might be hypothesized that faculty who have been at the institution for a long period of time will be less likely to support a change in a grading system that they are used to and comfortable in using. TABLE 5: Average GPA Issued in Student’s College vs Student’s Opinion of the Use of +/- Grades Average GPA Issued in Student’s College ;lt; 2. 2. 8-3. 1 ;gt;3. 1 6. 0% 3. 8% 2. 6% 11. 6% 10. 5% 8. 5% 9. 6% 11. 7% 7. 6% 19. 8% 22. 0% 16. 3% 9. 1% 10. 5% 5. 8% 24. 9% 19. 8% 27. 1% 19. 1% 21. 7% 32. 1% (450) 3. 1 21. 0% 28. 6% 31. 5% 35. 3% 21. 4% 23. 8% 11. 8% 11. 4% 8. 8% 2. 5% 5. 7% 7. 2 % 3. 4% 4. 3% 3. 9% 16. 8% 12. 1% 9. 9% 9. 2% 16. 4% 14. 9% (119) 0. 1329 (140) (181) Support Very Strongly Support Somewhat Strongly Support Slightly Don't Know / Care Oppose Slightly Oppose Somewhat Strongly Oppose Very Strongly Faculty in Category Chi-Square test p-valueThe reasons given by students and faculty members for supporting or opposing use of +/- grades are summarized in Tables 8 through 11. These tables were assembled by categorizing open-ended responses. In the case of respondents opposing +/- grades, there were a number of somewhat distinct 9 responses that were still logically related in an overall category. In those instances the overall number of occurrences in the general category is presented, but the distribution of responses within the subcategories is also presented.Table 8 summarizes reasons given by students supporting the use of +/- grades. The predominant reason given was that the system would provide grades that are more accurate and provide a more refin ed measure of performance. The second most prevalent reason – that +/- grades provide a more appropriate reward for the effort is somewhat related. Other rather frequent reasons given were the feeling that +/grades will raise GPAs and the belief that they will increase incentives for students to work hard in classes.In contrast to the 35 students who felt that +/- grades would raise GPAs, Table 9 indicates that 10 times as many students (352) believe that +/- grades will have a negative impact on grades. It seems clear that fear of lower grades was the most important factor in the overall negative view of students toward the +/- grading system. Just over 100 students indicated that they oppose +/- grades simply because they prefer the current system and either see no reason to change or do not like the new system.Students also criticized the new system as being overly complicated, increasing stress and placing too much focus on grades, requiring more work of them to receive t he same grades, and having a potential negative impact on employment, scholarships, and/or getting into graduate school. TABLE 8: Students' Reasons for Supporting +/- Grades Number of Comments Grades are More Accurate/Refined Provide More Appropriate Reward for the Effort Will Raise GPA's Increased Incentives to Work Harder Will increase the Reputation of the School Other Schools Use Them 145 43 35 21 7 5Reasons for faculty support for +/- grades are summarized in Table 10. The two most prevalent reasons cited closely parallel the top two reasons for support provided by students. First, that grades will be more accurate and refined under a +/- system (identical to the students’ top response) and second that they are fairer or better for the students (similar to the students’ response of – provides more appropriate reward for effort). Other prominent reasons for support included the belief that +/- grades will help combat grade inflation, and that they will impro ve student motivation. 0 TABLE 9: Students' Reasons for Opposing +/- Grades Number of Comments In SubIn Category Category 352 164 145 32 11 104 54 50 38 34 21 16 15 9 8 5 Negative Impact on Grades An â€Å"A† is an â€Å"A† (is difficult enough) It will lower my GPA Achieving 4. 0 is More Difficult Heard from ASU / Lower Grades Prefer Current System Like current System / no reason to change Don't like the change System is more Complicated Too much pressure / stress Will require more study time for the same grades Puts too much focus on grades Negative Impact on Scholarships/Employment/Grad.School Doesn't motivate me more Like high School/Grade School Changes School's Atmosphere TABLE 10: Faculty Reasons for Supporting +/- Grades Number of Comments Grades are More Accurate/Refined Grades are Fairer/Better for Students Will Combat Grade Inflation Will Improve Student Motivation Better / Easier for Faculty (Feel better about grades given) Will Improve Student Feedback 173 50 26 23 12 10 Reasons for opposition to +/- grades among faculty were varied (see Table 11). Most commonly cited is the idea that the change poses more costs than the benefits it provides.The next most frequent concern was the belief that grade challenges and arguments over grades would be increased since more students would be near a boundary between grades. Somewhat related to this are concerns that grades will be more difficult (physically and emotionally) for faculty to construct and compute and that the particular grade given will be arbitrary. Interestingly almost as many faculty believed that +/- grades would have no impact on or would increase grade inflation (17) as believed that +/- grades would reduce grade inflation (26). Finally, 10 faculty members expressed concern that +/- grades would overemphasize grades. 11TABLE 11: Faculty Members' Reasons for Opposing +/- Grades Number of Comments In SubIn Category Category 39 14 9 9 7 24 21 17 17 10 7 10 6 4 3 2 Cost versus Be nefit Current System is OK (no need for change) No Benefit to Change No Benefit to Students High cost to change with Little Benefit Will Increase Grade Challenges/Arguments Grading Will be More Difficult for faculty Grades are More Arbitrary Grade Inflation Impact Will Encourage Grade Inflation Won't Reduce Grade Inflation Overemphasis on Grades Emphasizes Grades versus Learning Adds to Student Anxiety over Grades Not used by Employers / recruiters May Hurt Student Grad School chancesConclusions This study examined the extent of use of +/- grades in AACSB accredited business schools by collecting data from 99 such schools. Sixty percent of the schools use some variant of a +/- grading system, 32 percent use only whole-letter grading and the remainder use a single intermediate grade. A survey of faculty and student opinions about a move to +/- grading at a mid-sized university in the Southwest provides a number of interesting insights. There is a strong divergence between student and faculty opinions.Over half of faculty respondents support +/- grades at least somewhat strongly as compared to only 15 percent of students. Nearly half of student respondents oppose the change at least somewhat strongly. Students and faculty supporting the +/- grading system cited very similar reasons for their support – the belief that grades will be more accurate and refined and the belief that grades will be fairer or better for students. Some students also indicated the change would provide incentive to work harder. Some faculty felt it would combat grade inflation and improve student motivation.Students who oppose the change believe there will be a negative impact on GPA’s (352 students believe this versus 35 who believe grades would improve). The next most prevalent student comment was that they prefer the current system and see no need for a change. Faculty who opposed the change commented most frequently that there is little benefit from the change and next th at it will increase grade challenges or make grading more difficult for faculty. Opposition to the change was strongest and support for +/- grades was weakest among students in colleges issuing the highest average grades.In addition, sophomores and juniors and students with higher GPAs tend to be most strongly opposed. This suggests that student opposition to a +/- grading system could be reduced by implementing it in a phased manner (starting with the freshman class) and by finding a way to incorporate a grade of A+. In addition, resistance to change theory suggests that it is important that the reasons why the use of +/- grades might be in the best interest of students be effectively communicated throughout the process and that students groups should be involved early in any proposal to institute +/- grades.

Analysis on “The Fall of the House of Usher”

â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† Analysis ?Symbolism is â€Å"the practice of representing things by symbols, or of investing things with a symbolic meaning or character† according to dictionary. com. This literary device is employed frequently by authors, and Edgar Allan Poe is no exception. Considered the father of American Gothic literature, Poe is best known for his poem â€Å"The Raven. † â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† is perhaps his best-known short story; it set the standard by which Gothic literature, setting and even the term itself are measured.The Title Symbolism in â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† begins with the title. At the end of the story, the house itself does indeed fall; in the beginning, however, Roderick Usher tells the narrator that once his chronically ill twin sister Madeleine dies, it â€Å"would leave him (him the hopeless and the frail) the last of the ancient race of the Ushers. † The House There is much symbolism associated with the house itself; the narrator describes the house at length in the beginning of the story.From the outside in, everything about it seems to be in a state of decline, disrepair or neglect, paralleling the steadily declining health of the occupants. Perhaps the most telling image is the upside-down reflection of the house on the lake, indicating that everything about the place is all wrong. The Painting and Poem In the middle of the story, Roderick paints a picture of the inside view of a vault. Later, he and the narrator place the supposedly dead Madeleine in an almost identical real vault. In the same passage, there is a poem or ballad called â€Å"The Haunted Palace. It describes a once-beautiful palace in a once-green setting in which â€Å"evil things, in robes of sorrow / Assailed the monarch's high estate. † The Usher mansion immediately comes to mind, while the â€Å"robes of sorrow† are reminiscent of Madeleine's burial robes. The Weather and Moon In the final scene a storm comes up, building along with the narrative; storms in literature have long been used to underscore climactic action. Finally, as the house crumbles into the lake, there is a full, blood-red moon overhead, symbolic of bloodshed and death

Performance Measures Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Performance Measures - Assignment Example spite encouraging a comparison of income generated to assets used, Caplan (2014) argues that this measurement could encourage focus on short-term as opposed to long term financial performance and deferment of asset replacement. The second measure is residual income, RI. RI refers to the operating income earned by an investment center above the minimum desired return on the assets invested (Needles et al., 2014). This is a dollar amount of profit that remains after the subtraction of the targeted income for an investment center. RI is a significant measure because it enhances goal congruence (Jiambalvo, 2011). This follows the fact that RI encourages managers to invest so as to post higher RI values. Of these two performance measurements, RI would be considered as more important. Whereas both measures determine performance, RI incorporates the rate of return that an organization expects from invested capital (Needles et al., 2014). Thus, any investment with a return exceeding the minimum needed rate of return yields a positive RI. As such, RI measures an important aspect of performance, the level of investment, which ROI omits, making it a more important measure of

Cultural Barries in Global Business Research Paper

Cultural Barries in Global Business - Research Paper Example Such reasons include an enabling business environment, which is a prerequisite for any business startup or venture. On the other hand, a business will face challenges related to the culture, which may act as a barrier on business. Furthermore, there are other challenges like leadership barriers, which affect business operations. Nevertheless, it is incumbent upon the business to deal with these challenges and use the best leadership methods. The United States is one of the countries that appeal to business ventures for obvious reasons. In this regard, a business will succeed in an environment that is politically stable and not volatile. In effect, the United States offers such an environment for business. Known as the free world, the United States is a model of democracy that is free from autocratic rule, which makes business operations conducive. As a result, a democratic state is one of the main reasons the United States appeals to setting up of businesses since the political clima te ensures effective economic legislations, which are essential for business. In effect, the lack of economic uncertainties such as unexpected takeovers due to lack of clear economic policies and legislations is important for business. Despite the creation of an environment whereby there is economic regulation of businesses in the United States, the country is the largest economy in the world in terms of GDP. In effect, it is common knowledge that economic strength translates to a higher per capita income amongst the citizens. Therefore, there is an available market for goods and services a business will produce for since the consumers have a high marginal propensity to purchase and consume. In effect, this feature of the economy of the United States appeals to businesses since the average consumer has a high purchasing power. The contemporary business world witnesses business increasingly committed to reaching global markets. Barkema, Bell, and Pennings (1996) noted, â€Å"Globali zation confers access to foreign markets, cheap labor, and other advantages† (p. 151). Nevertheless, a few firms do not realize the existent of these cultural differences. Nevertheless, businesses that identify cultural barriers will find approaches of dealing with the barriers in order to establish a competitive edge over their competitors. According to Leung, Bhagat, Buchan, Erez, and Gibson (2005), broadly defined as â€Å"values, beliefs, norms, and behavior patterns of a national group,† established cultures have an effect on the business activities and performance of individuals (p. 357). In the American society, one cultural belief that may affect business is the individuality amongst the Americans. According to E. Hall and M. Hall (1990), the American culture's biggest concern is â€Å"their own careers and their personal success than about the welfare of the organization or group† (p. 147). Americans will often come out as individuals who like to â€Å" handle their own problems and chafe at authority† (E. Hall & M. Hall, 1990, p. 148). As a result, this character trait may pose a big challenge to the leadership of a business since they may think that the average American worker was rebellious to the leadership in a firm. On the other hand, individualism, which is one of the most important aspects in the American culture, is a barrier to leadership. In this case, individualism works against teamwork in a business entity. In this case, since success in a business is a team task, the

Can literature tell the truth better than other arts (Theory of Essay

Can literature tell the truth better than other arts (Theory of knowledge) - Essay Example Some novels are good, some are terrible. The same can be said of other art forms as well. Many paintings are really boring to look at, others you can't stop looking at them. Perhaps it is best to compare the best of novels with the best of other arts. That way the comparison will be more fair and people can see what really happens. Literature are made up of novels and non-fiction works. A novel is very good at getting the reader inside the head of the people who are involved. For example, in the Harry Potter books, the author lets the readers know what Harry is thinking. If you compare this to the films of the books, in the films you don't know what people are thinking. But in the films you see the action better. So when you see Harry on his broomstick attacking a dragon that is better when you see it then when you read it in the book. Films show action better than novels but also are more simple. Novels are much longer and can include more details than a film. A film tends to make things simple for the audience. A novel also takes longer to read than a film takes to watch. A person can read two days today but thirty pages tomorrow. They can then leave the book for a month without reading it at all. So a book is the kind of art that you can take at your own pace. Other arts need to be seen all at once. This is especially the case with a film. You can't really watc five minutes one day, thirty the next and then leave it for a month before watching the rest. It would not seem to make sense. A painting, like a film, shows things rather than tells us about them. It is a picture rather than words. A painting just shows one thing, or set of things, while a novel can tell a whole story of a person or many different generations. The fact that the picture is simple makes it easier for the person who is looking at it to understand what is happening. A sculpture is like a picture in that it shows a particular scene, and only one. The sculpture is different than either novels or films because it is very physical in nature. Some sculptures, as long as they are not too famous, can actually be touched by a person looking at them. You cannot touch a novel or a film. A sculpture can be looked at from different angles, while a novel can only really be read in one way. If you look at a sculpture from behind it will look different from in front. But it will be the same sculpture. Is this a better view of the truth than can be found in novels In one way, yes, because it is like reale life. For example, if you meet someone for the first time you can look at them from the front or from the behind. There are different angles. This is the same with sculpture. Theatre is a bit like sculpture, except it uses real people. You actually see real people in theatre, unlike in film where they are just light on a screen. That makes it different. Different because you can tell that they are real people on the stage. Every performance will be different. A novel is always the same, as is a film. Poetry is an art that is like literature more than the other artes. This is because it uses words, like the novel. The only way a person can understand poetry is to read it. The poem is different from a novel in the fact that it is rather much shorter. You can read most poems in a few minutes. In one way this is like looking at a painting, or, to less extent, a film. Some poetry can be very difficult to read, even

Final assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Final assessment - Essay Example All knowledge is based on perception. All categories of knowledge are processed knowledge whether conceptual, perceptual or sensory. Knowledge acquired without means of cognition is unprocessed knowledge. All concepts are formed by measurement omission process. This is according to the philosopher Rand in her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology. Concepts are basically integration of units possessing the same distinguishing characteristics with certain measurements omitted. This is because measurements are an essential part of a process. Animals can be integrated into concepts such as living things. Ethics While in search for a good life, we have to distinguish between what is right or wrong and various rules of morality. Ethics is what enables us to achieve this. It defines the code of values that guide our choices and actions. The choices define the purpose and course of our life. Existence and non-existence pertains to living things only. The existence of inanimate matter is u nconditional while that of life is conditional because it depends on a certain course of action. Only living things face the issue of life and death. A person is free to think or else evade the effort in any issue of life or at any hour. Man’s mind is only the tool of survival because life is given to him and but survival is not. The body is given to him, but its sustenance is not, he is given the mind but not its content. He has to purpose his actions and know the nature before taking any action for him to remain alive. To implement his choice rational ethics guide him on the principle actions to take. If he decides not to live, nature obviously takes its course. He has to adhere to a moral code. According to the Philosophers Douglas Rasmussen and Douglas Den, every man must work for his rational self- interest for achievement of his own happiness as the highest moral purpose of his life. Reality Rand’s philosophy targets three axioms namely existence, consciousness a nd identity. Through reality, we develop a sense of belief. For instance, existence, consciousness, and identity are bases of knowledge and inescapable. Existence is the base of all forms of knowledge. Existence is identity of a specific nature made of certain attributes. Anything with no attributes does not exist. Mind never creates reality but it is a mean of discovering reality. Entities act in a manner caused by the nature of them. Primary observation of causal connections among entities serves as the basis of further knowledge. Freedom Freedom is an ingredient of a good life and very important thing on earth. A German philosopher Immanuel Kant supports this and argues that freedom is a prerequisite for moral responsibility. Many countries as well as individuals have fought for it. The possibility of moral judgments presupposes it. It serves an indispensable practical function. For a reason to act, the freedom has to be assumed. We have to think of our actions as the result of a n uncaused cause for us to accomplish ends and get to know the world better. We must think ourselves as being free. How we choose to act makes the difference in how we act. In making decisions on what to do, the mechanism that works in our nervous system makes no difference to us at all. For instance, if you decide to buy a house, you have to consider options, reflect on your needs and make decisions basing yourself on application of general principles. Deliberative,

Arguments Participation Paper 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Arguments Participation Paper 1 - Assignment Example They mock at the racial inequality as dust gets settled on both the white and the black. The economic exploitation and indifferent treatment toward the tunnel workers are evident in the lines 9-12. Muriel has been a social activist taking her poetry to the level of political statements. She has worked for the cause of various political and social issues during her time. In her poem, â€Å"George Robinson: Blues†, she depicts the gruesome, inhuman life of the black tunnel workers in the town of Gauley Bridge. The town is characterized as the â€Å"Negro town† sarcastically, as it does not own them but disowns them by sending tunnel workers in bulk to the cemetery on top of the hill. George, the speaker presents an insider’s view of the life in the tunnel. White dust settling on the blacks deconstructs the racial coding and makes it difficult for the outsider to identify the ‘white’. The tunnel worker, masked in white dust, proceeds gradually toward the graveyard in the top of the hill left unattended by doctors. They are not provided with the basic medical facilities nor are cared for by the authorities. They are left to die so inhuman. He says how the workers die in huge numbers due to the unhealthy working conditions. â€Å"Did you ever bury thirty-five men in a place in back of your  house/thirty-five tunnel workers the doctors didnt attend/ died in the tunnel camps, under rocks, everywhere, world/ without end† (9) ironically portray how inhuman the tunnel workers are looked upon. It is very clear that the tunnel workers are commodities looked upon only for utility and when they turn sick and not fit to work and turn over profit, the authorities step in only to remove them from the job. George says, â€Å"when he couldnt keep going barely/the Cap and company come and run him off the job surely† (15). The poet has depicted the social picture of the tunnel workers in the voice of an

Policy Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Policy Analysis - Essay Example Such statements are suppressed because they violate the Fifth Amendment and they are subject to the Miranda exclusionary rule. A waiver, in this regard, occurs when the suspect logically, knowingly and voluntarily waives his right. In order to determine the validity of the waiver, it is important to look at the circumstances and events resulting in the waiver. Where the suspect makes a spontaneous or voluntary statement before the rights are read, such statements can be admitted provided the statements were not prompted by interrogations. This position clearly shows that Miranda rights are only necessary when law enforcement intends to interrogate a suspect (Burgan, 2006). Miranda rights, policies and procedures, therefore, greatly affect the operations and decision making process within law enforcement. The rights give the suspect protection against self-incrimination as well as providing appropriate guidelines for law enforcement in the manner they interrogate suspects. Miranda policies and procedures assist in determining whether suspects’ statements can be admitted or suppressed in a court of

Greek Heroes and changes in feminism and masculinity Essay Example for Free

Greek Heroes and changes in feminism and masculinity Essay That a millennium-long struggle between patriarchal and matriarchal mindsets took place in the Bronze Age is easily apparent whether one turns to Greek drama, mythology, or mythography. In every category numerous examples of this can be found – a nearly, if not actually, overwhelming number. It begins as early as with the ancient tale of Hercules, one of Zeuss many sons and a later iconic figure representing strength, courage, and sexual prowess. Hercules was jealously hated by Zeuss wife, Hera, and for that reason she took every opportunity available to cause him pain and attempt to kill him. Even before his birth, out of jealous rage Hera attempted to prevent his birth. Throughout his life she tormented him, still punishing him for her husbands infidelity. Hera exhibits what were considered at the time â€Å"feminine† traits: she allowed herself to be consumed by jealousy over her husbands dalliances with other women, and lashed out against these women and their offspring. She was â€Å"conniving† and devoted herself to tormenting the lovers and illegitimate offspring of her husband. Hercules, on the other hand, was the embodiment of masculinity: he was physically strong, courageous, successful sexually, able to depend on his wit when his strength was insufficient for a task, mentally capable of withstanding multiple transgressions into insanity (all induced by Hera), emotionally strong enough to handle murdering his own children, and his end was brought about by a woman (his second-to-last wife, unwittingly and easily manipulated with jealousy into killing her husband). The same cant quite be said for the myth of Jason and Medea. Hera, instead of tormenting the male out of jealousy, instead assists him out of a depression by indirectly making Medea fall in love with him and help him in his tasks. After he finishes all his tasks, he sets sail, taking Medea with him, and she has to distract her father by murdering her brother, effectively cutting all ties with her life as a maiden. After an eventual exile, Jason not only betrays Medea by getting engaged with another woman, he adds insult to injury by dismissing her pleas and assertions that she had helped him with the fact that he had no loyalty to her, but only to Aphrodite, who was the reason Medea had fallen in love with him at all. Medea takes her revenge by presenting the bride with a cursed dress, protects her two sons by murdering them, and flees. Jason, the male, depends on Medea, the female with magical talents, to assist him, and at an early opportunity, leaves her behind, despite what he owes her, to pursue a marriage that would make him more politically attractive. Medea is jealous and uses her capabilities to inflict harm before leaving immediately. The myth of Oedipus weaves a tale not similar in content, but in portrayal of feminine and masculine roles and traits. Oedipus, aware of the prophecy that he will kill his father and marry his mother, attempts valiantly to avoid this by simply leaving what he believes to be his homeland, unaware of having been adopted. Along the way, he kills a man who he doesnt know to be both the king of Thebes and his biological father. He also solves the riddle of the Sphinx, freeing the city from its terror. Upon his arrival to the city, he pledges to eradicate the plague, swearing to find the murderer of the citys king. He marries the queen, Jocasta, and his own mother, and has children by her. Oedipus is told by a blind prophet that he should abandon his search for the killer, and the story unravels: he is told that he is the killer, and disbelieves because he still thinks hes the son of his adopted father. Jocasta realizes Oedipus is her son, and out of shame and horror takes her own life. Oedipus too realizes eventually that he was adopted, and that he unwittingly fulfilled the prophecy he was trying to avoid. He immediately searches for Jocasta and finds her dead by her own hand in the palace. In despair, he gouges his own eyes out, which is an uncommon form of self-punishment considering suicide is more likely in Greek tragedy than self-crippling. He goes on to become revered rather than reviled; a wise, old blind man. Oedipus, because of his efforts to avoid a horrific situation, escapes harsh judgment. Jocasta, on the other hand, immediately falls into prescribed gender roles: a newly widowed queen, she naturally marries the strong savior of the city. After realizing who her second husband truly is, she tries to prevent him from figuring out his own identity and takes on the burden herself, taking her own life. Perseus, even before the heros conception, is a myth riddled with adherence to gender traditions. His mother is shut away and kept from becoming pregnant, her father having been told that he would be killed by his daughters son. Despite this, Zeus easily visits her and impregnates her, resulting in the birth of Perseus. Cast away from his homeland, he was raised by his mother and a fisherman. Invited to a banquet to which he was expected to bring a horse, Perseus promised another gift instead, and was immediately commanded to bring the head of Medusa as a prize. With the help of the gods, he did so – proving his masculinity and manhood by withstanding the trial. On his return journey, he happened upon a situation in which a woman needed rescuing; he became the valiant hero, again proving his masculinity and manhood by appropriately responding to a feminine crisis, and she became his wife, naturally responding appropriately to Perseuss masculinity. Theseuss story, as a founder-figure, is a much longer tale than the previous heros. He also began early, recovering his fathers arms to prove his hero-hood and lineage. On his way to Athens to claim his birthright, Theseus faces peril after peril after peril, and task after task, overcoming each obstacle, and in the process proving each time his courage, manhood, masculinity, bravery, and strength. In each circumstance he not only proved himself, but became a savior figure as well, as each obstacle he overcame was a problem for multiple people. Upon his arrival at Athens, Medea recognized him as the rightful heir to the throne, and decided to have him killed so her own son would be guaranteed the spot. Unsuccessful the first time, she tried a second time, the king only realizing in the nick of time who Theseus was, and saving his life. He was chosen as the hero to rescue Athenians from the Minotaur, to which they were forced to pay tribute each year with their own population. Again with assistance from a woman, he was successful in the endeavor and took her with him to marry. However, exhibiting the treatment of women as passive pawns, a god appeared to him in a dream, claiming her as his own bride and demanding he leave her on an island for him. Theseus, unwilling to anger the gods, did so. Theseus exhibits all of the ideal masculine traits of the period: strength, courage, valiantness, independence, and doesnt fall to the feminine traits of the woman who conspires against his attempt to seize his rightful place. Ariadne exhibits the ascribed feminine traits of the woman who falls for the valiant hero and ultimate example of masculinity, helpfulness and willingness to bend to his will. All of these heroes and their myths, including the women who helped or harmed them in their endeavors to prove their manhood, masculinity, courage, and strength, only emphasize the point that the struggle between matriarchal and patriarchal interests was always fierce. References (1855). Bulfinch index. Retrieved July 9, 2009, from Bulfinchs mythology the age of fable or stories of gods and heros Web site: http://www. sacred-texts. com/cla/bulf/ Ovid, (1 A. C. E. ). The internet classics archive. Retrieved July 9, 2009, from Metamorphoses Web site: http://classics. mit. edu/Ovid/metam. html Sophocles (n. d. ). Oedipus the king. Retrieved July 9, 2009, from The internet classics archive Web site: http://classics. mit. edu/Sophocles/oedipus. html

Analysis Of Internet Banking

Analysis Of Internet Banking The definition of Internet banking varies in many ways. Basically, Internet Banking can be understood as the new means to provide information related to banks and their services via an online homepage (Mahmood and Steve, 2009; Ongkasuwan and Tantichattanon, 2002). Daniel (1999), Arunachalam Sivasubramanian (2007) also defines Internet Banking as the delivery of banks information and services to customers via different delivery platforms, such as computer or mobile phone. Via the Internet using PC or mobile phone and web-browser, a banks customers can request information and carry out most banking services (Daniel, 1999; Mols, 1998; Sathye, 1999). Ongkasuwan and Tantichattanon (2002) defined Internet banking service as banking service that allows customers to access and perform financial transactions on their bank accounts from their computers with Internet connection. Some researchers defined Internet Banking based on which services it offers to customers. Internet Banking is delivery channel of banking services which allows both private and corporate customers to use different banking transactions such as new account opening, payment, loan application and approval, cash management, etc. (Pikkarainen, Karjaluoto, and Pahnila, 2004). Internet Banking is also an electronic connection between the bank and the customer with the aim of preparing, managing and controlling financial transactions for both parties (Burr, 1996). Pikkarainen et al (2004) define internet banking as an internet portal, through which customers can use different kinds of banking services ranging from bill payment to making investments. With the click of a mouse, Internet Banking can help banking customers to access to almost any type of banking transaction (De Young, 2001). Other researchers define Internet Banking based on its benefits brings to banks. Pikkarainen et al, (2004) considered Internet Banking as one of the cheapest delivery channels for banking products. Despite high starting-up costs of Internet Banking channel, Internet Banking still can become profitable when achieving a critical mass (Mahmood and Steve, 2009). Additionally, the use of the internet is seen as a new alternative channel for the distribution of financial services which offer competitive advantage (Flavià ¡n et al, 2004; Gan and Clemes, 2006). Because the needs of todays customers are more sophisticated and demanding in the banking industry, branches alone are no longer sufficient (Mahmood and Steve, 2009). Internet Banking has provided an alternative means to acquire banking services more conveniently and become ideal for banks to meet customers expectations. Thanks to Internet Banking, banks can use information and communication technology to provide services and manage customer relationship more quickly and most satisfactorily (Charity-Commission, 2003). Internet Banking has become the main means for banks to market and sell their products and services help banks stay profitable and successful (Amato-McCoy, 2005). This electronic distribution of services offers various benefits which will be discussed in the next section. Additionally, the main characteristic of Internet Banking is that Internet Banking brings the differences between traditional, physical market place and the virtual one (Rayport and Sviokla, 1994). Customers conduct banking transactions using online electronic channel instead of bank branches. Without visiting a brick and- mortar institution, through Internet Banking, a customer may perform banking transactions electronically (Al-Abed, 2003). In conclusion, for the purpose of this research, the researcher defines electronic banking as the new delivery of banking services and products through the use of electronic means such as mobile phones, or computers which connected to Internet in all the time and in all places. Such products and services can include deposit-taking, lending, account management, the provision of financial advice, electronic bill payment, and the provision of other electronic payment products and services such as electronic money. 2.1.2 Internet Banking Advantages and Disadvantages 2.1.2.1 Internet Banking Advantages 2.1.2.1.1 Customers Convenience Customers enjoy the conveniences of internet banking services since Internet Banking makes banking transactions faster, easier and more efficient. Convenience has been identified by a number of studies as an important adoption factor (ACNielsen, 2005; Pew, 2003; Ramsay and Smith, 1999; Thornton and White, 2001). For customers, the benefits are more choice; greater competition and better value for money; more information; better tools to manage and compare information; and faster service (Sergeant, 2000). With the provision of Internet Banking services, customers can possess convenience in terms of 24/7 access (Pew, 2003). Traditionally, visiting a physical branch is the only way for customers to do banking transactions which require security and privacy. Without Internet Banking, bank transactions are only implemented within office hours. On the other hand, banks which offer Internet Banking are open for business every time and every place with Internet connection. Therefore, Internet Banking users are able to save time and transportation expenses, waiting time as well. When accessing the Internet connection, via phones or computers, customers can do banking transactions without any efforts. Internet Banking enables users to have mobility since transactions can be performed in any time and at any place. Customers are increasingly mobile and demand for flexible services, as a result, they prefer quick delivery of products and services. Additionally, Internet Banking also provides paper free, complete and up-to-date transactions (Wright and Ralston, 2002). Internet Banking users are easy to know all details of their current and past financial data and banking transactions. Any inquiry or transaction is processed online without any reference to the physical branch at any time. Instead of filling out application form and sign many papers, or use ID card for security, consumers just log in their account and type account password, they get the accurate and updated financial data. Real-time account balances and information are available. For example, customers always update the information about interest rates and money-spending options. Compared with traditional over-the-counter banking, Internet Banking quality is not influenced by personal contact between customers and banks (Lu Nancy Zheng, 2010). Banking transactions with the provision of Internet Banking can be automated. When banks do not offer Internet Banking, any banking transactions need the involvement of bank employees. Although human communication plays an important role in marketing, this can be considered as a double-edged sword. The quality of services depends on attitudes of bank employee. Moreover, Internet Banking benefits banks for minimizing the likelihood of committing errors by bank tellers (Jayawardhena and Foley, 2000). To some extent, not offering face-to-face contact can be seen as one of the advantages of Internet Banking. 2.1.2.1.2 Increased Profits Firstly, Internet Banking helps improved profits by lowering operation costs. Expanding geographically by opening new branches requires high starting-up cost and maintenance costs. With the help of Internet Banking, banking transactions do not require a physical presence. As a result, Internet Banking enhances reduction of overhead costs of physical channels, which require expensive buildings and a staff presence. Additionally, all banking transaction of Internet Banking is largely automatic which enables banks to reduce the workload of branch staff. Also, Internet Banking helps avoid errors related to data entry and personal communication mistakes. Indeed, banks not only save costs but also easier expand the traditional customer bases. Internet Banking replaces some of traditional bank functions to reduce significant overheads related to bank branches, as a result, Internet Banking is considered as one of the cheapest delivery channels for banking services (Arunachalam and Sivasubra manian, 2007). Moreover, Internet Banking helps banks in cutting cost, improve market share, maintain various E-business services, extend marketing and communication channel, search for new innovation services, and improve cross-selling opportunities (Ongkasuwan and Tantichattanon, 2002). Secondly, another reason why Internet Banking improved economic returns for banks is that Internet Banking allows banks to diversify their value creation activities. While doing transaction banking online, users easily approach with many other cross-selling banking services with details. Selling an additional product or service to an existing customer is called cross-selling. The profits can be gained not only based on current offered services but also other cross-selling activities (Arunachalam and Sivasubramanian, 2007). According to Mahmood and Steve (2009), the higher than average income and education levels are more attracted by Internet Banking is high profit customers. Based on detailed data about customers financial profiles and purchasing behavior, banks which possess detailed understanding of customers create customized advertising, customized products for bank users. By this way, not only current services banks offer but also other services can be sold. Internet Banking pr ovides faster delivery of banking services to a wider range of customers (Oghenerukevbe, 2008). Not only did the number of its online customer grow very quickly, but the new customer base was also very profitable. 2.1.2.1.3 Competitive Advantage The use of Internet Banking can gain competitive advantage to deal with globalization and fiercer competition (Flavià ¡n, Torres, Guinalà ­u, 2004). Firstly, Internet Banking enables banks to achieve competitive advantage since having a large online and physical branch network. Operation cost per Internet Banking transaction is much lower than for other service delivery channels (Shah et al., 2007). Jayawardhena and Foley (2000) reported that the transaction cost for non-cash payment at a branch relative to the internet can be 11 times more than online transaction. By lower operation cost, Internet Banking enables a bank to survive the economic pressures and down-turns. Secondly, Internet Banking helps banks to gain competitive advantage since it is seen as one of those innovative ways to meet customers expectations (Mahmood and Steve, 2009). In this customer-centered business, customers are more demanding for products or services with high-quality, sold at less cost and delivered quickly. Thanks to its characteristics, Internet Banking is one of the best options. Internet Banking helps banking users can access any transactions in all time and everywhere with the lowest costs. Thirdly, Internet Banking is considered as a key in both keeping customers loyal and accessing new markets. Apart from expansion by selling products or services for new customers, maintain existing ones is equally important, especially in current difficult economic situation. There is more and more pressure on banks to diversify their products to create value. Otherwise, banks are likely to drag behind competitors and new entrants in financial sectors lose important current customer segment. For example, Woolwich Bank in the UK, compared with traditional banking customers, Internet Banking customers hold more number of financial products on average (Mahmood and Steve, 2009). 2.1.2.1.4 Enhanced Image Internet Banking helps to enhance the image of the organization since banks is seen as innovative organization offering innovative products. This image also helps banks more effective at e-marketing. Internet Banking enables customers to access internet bank all the time and in all places which means that there is no boundary of spaces and time brings more opportunities to extend their relationship with the customers Robinson (2000). More effective marketing and communication at lower costs will not only improve market image but also prepare banks to have better and quicker response to market evolution (Jayawardhena and Foley, 2000). Offering extra service delivery channels means wider choice and convenience for customers, which itself is an improvement in customer service. Internet Banking can be made available 24 hours a day throughout the year, and a widespread availability of the Internet, even on mobile phones, means that customers can conduct many of their financial tasks virtu ally anywhere and anytime. 2.1.2.2 Internet Banking Disadvantages 2.1.2.2.1 High costs Although Internet Banking saves infrastructure costs for banks as above mention reasons, banks introducing Internet Banking just made little savings (Young, 2007). The reason is that any savings are offset by above average wages and benefits per worker. Internet Banking needs a more skilled labor force to run the more sophisticated delivery system. Moreover, costs related extra security measures need taken into consideration. 2.1.2.2.2 The negative effects on banks and customers relationship The traditional channels of offering banking services strongly focus on personal relationships. It is essential to maintain the human touch in customer services (Avkiran, 1999). Customers might be satisfied with the greeting, politeness, neatness of bank employees, ability to express concern for customers needs, apologize for customers complaints. The way of staff members serving customers are likely to influence customer satisfaction directly. Internet Banking completely changes this aspect of customer and bank relationship since it is fully automated. A traditional bank provides the opportunity to develop a personal relationship with that bank. At a local bank branch, employee can make a conservation to ask their customers demand or help them to solve their problems, consult their financial decisions. It is increasingly personal contact with customers. The banker also will get to know the customer and his unique needs. Meanwhile, Internet Banking just performs common transactions without any face-to-face contacts (Cho et al. 2007). According to Broderick and Vachirapornuk (2003:333), customers do not have interaction with employees in person. 2.1.3 Internet Banking Barriers 2.1.3.1 Accessibility to the Internet Wireless communications enables Internet Banking become more and more accessible. Although the growth of the Internet has been very fast, there is still a large population who do not own computers or mobile phones connect to the Internet. For example, different from developed countries, Internet connectivity is still a problem in some rural areas and several developing countries. Lack of computer literacy is one of the reasons Internet Banking is less developed (Walczuch et al., 2000). 2.1.3.2 Consumer Behavior As above mentioned, convenience is not only a key determinant of consumer satisfaction (Yang et al., 2003) but also one of the dominating factors in transaction channel preferences (Ramsay and Smith, 1999). In the field of Internet Banking, this is one of the most cited beneficial features because it offers more leisure-time when doing banking transaction (Devlin, 1995; Daniel, 1999; Liao and Cheung, 2002). Despite the awareness of Internet Bankings benefit, users are still reluctant to use Internet Banking. It is very common in developing countries to physically transfer money. The minority of customers are willing to use Internet Banking, whereas a large number of consumers of financial services are still uncomfortable to conduct their financial management online. The reason is that the use of new technology depends on the technology acceptance of customers and the consumer habits in each country. 2.1.3.3 Security Issues Security challenges banks to deal with customer fears in perform financial transactions using website as a channel (Aladwani, 2001; Sathye, 1999; Gerrard and Cunningham, 2003). In the first quarter of 2005, 80% of global online attacks towards the financial services sector (IDC, 2005). Customers tend to lack confidence in technology-based services delivery systems (Walker et al., 2002). For example, they are unsure that the transaction was completed or the transaction is delayed or not. Also, they are afraid that slow response time after completing leads to a delay of service delivery. This can result in transaction risk (Westland, 2002). This concerns mainly because of the quality of online services systems. Reputation of the bank also significantly affects customer adoption of new technology-based service delivery (Aladwani, 2001). Interestingly, other researchers found that consumer is very much confident about their bank but they have less confidence in technology (Howcroft et al., 2002). Consumers express their concern that online banking is not likely to keep their information of transaction secure and private (Belanger et al., 2002; Salisbury et al., 2001). Therefore, it is essential for Internet Banking banks provider higher degree of security that enables customers to trust internet banking at all times and places (Daniel, 1999, Black et al, 2001; Polatoglu and Ekin, 2001; Suganthi et al, 2001; Gerrard and Cunningham, 2003). 2.2 Understanding of Customer Satisfaction Both business practitioners and academic researchers pay more and more attention to customer satisfaction (Bolton and Drew, 1991; Christian Bettina, 1999). Jamal and Naser (2003) emphasized the importance of customer satisfaction for marketers and researchers as well when stating that it is an important theoretical and practical issue. Thus, from the past on, customer satisfaction is defined by different studies in different ways which brings a diversity of definitions for customer satisfaction. Firstly, customer satisfaction can be basically defined by using its determinants. Many researcher used expectation and disconfirmation (Kang, Nobuyuki and Herbert, 2004), or expectation and performance (Johnson, Anderson and Fornell, 2001), or quality and disconfirmation (McQuitty, Finn and Wiley, 2000), or expectation and quality (Giese and Cote, 2002) as customer satisfactions determinants to define customer satisfaction. Meanwhile, Prabhakar (2005) found customer satisfactions factors include the price factors, product or services quality, customers expectations. Secondly, customer satisfaction can be defined based on two different conceptualizations, namely Transaction-specific satisfaction and Cumulative-specific satisfaction (Boulding, 1993). Transaction-specific satisfaction is a customers evaluation, based on both experience and reactions, towards a particular service encounter (Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Boshoff and Gray, 2004). Cumulative-specific satisfaction is defined as customers overall evaluation based on total purchase and consumption experience (Johnson, Anderson and Fornell, 1995). While transaction-specific satisfaction provides specific transactional information about specific purchase occasion (Anderson, 1994b), cumulative-specific satisfaction refers to customers experience with past, current, and future performances. Thirdly, customer satisfaction is the gap while comparison between pre-purchased expectation and post purchase (Barsky, 1992; Oh and Parks, 1997; McQuitty, Finn and Wiley, 2000). This conceptualization is called the expectancy disconfirmation theory which developed by Oliver (1980). According to this theory, customers experience satisfaction when product or service is better than expected. Otherwise, if the performance is worse than their expectations, negative disconfirmation or dissatisfaction occurs. Customer satisfaction is a highly personal assessment which consists of not only cognitive element but also emotional element. Customers buy products or services because the benefits products or services offer. Hanan, Mack and Karp, Peter (1989) stated that customers receives significant add-value is satisfied customers. Therefore, customers always expect products possess benefits they need. Apart from other above mention definitions, more definitions of customer satisfaction are presented in following Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 Customer Satisfaction Definition No. Author Definition 1 Olshavsky Miller (1972) The consequence of the confirmation or positive disconfirmation of expectations, which means that the perceived performance is equal to or better than the expected outcome 2 Churchill and Surprenant (1982) An outcome of purchase and use resulting from the buyers comparison of the rewards and costs of the purchase in relation to the anticipated consequences 3 Woodruff et al. (1983) An emotional feeling in response to confirmation/disconfirmation 4 Peter Olson (1996) The degree to which a consumers pre-purchase expectations are fulfilled or surpassed by a product 5 Oliver (1997) Satisfaction is the consumers fulfillment response. It is a judgment that a product or service feature, or the product or service itself, provided (or is providing a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment, including levels of under or over fulfillment 6 Andreassen Lindestad (1998) The accumulated experience of a customers purchase and consumption experiences Definition of customer satisfaction and debates relate to this definition is widely discussed. On the other hand, in this study, customer satisfaction can be simply understood that customer satisfaction is the customer pleasure when products or services meet customers demand. 2.3 The relationship between Customer Satisfaction and its antecedents Due to the importance of customer satisfaction, a variety of research has been done to determine the factors influencing customer satisfaction (Churchill and Surprenant, 1982; Oliver, 1980; Barsky, 1995; Zeithaml and Bitner, 2003). According to Oliver (1980), there are three factors influencing Customer Satisfaction: Service Quality (1), Price (2), Privacy and Security (3). Figure 2.1 Factors influencing Customer Satisfaction 2.3.1 The relationship between Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction Concepts of Service Quality The most important component affecting customer satisfaction is Service Quality (Shelly Gandhi et al; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Oliver, 1993; Spreng and Machoy, 1996). Similarly with customer satisfaction, many academic researchers paid attention to service quality since it is a means of creating competitive advantages and customer loyalty (Dawn et al., 1995). Generally, service quality measures whether services meet customers needs and expectations or not (Lewis and Booms, 1983). Cronin and Taylor (1994) defined service quality as a long-run overall evaluation of products or services whereas Bitner, Booms and Mohr (1994) defined service quality as the overall impression of the organization and its services. Similar to customer satisfaction definition, according to Parasuraman et al. (1985), service quality can be defined as the consumers comparison between pre-purchase service expectation and actual service performance. Since Parasuraman et al. (1985) proposed their conceptual model of perceived service quality, more and more attention has been paid to services quality. On the other hand, the research conducted by Parasuraman et al. (1985) is mostly recognized. Table 2.2 Dimensions of Service Quality Author Dimensions of Service Quality Gronroos 1982 Technical quality Functional quality Corporate image Zeithamls (2002) Efficiency Reliability Fulfillment Privacy Responsiveness Compensation Contact Jun and Cai (2001) Reliability Responsiveness Competence Courtesy Credibility Access Communication Understanding Collaboration Continuous improvement Yang et al. (2004) Reliability Attentiveness Ease of use Access Credibility Garvin (1988) Besterfield (2003) Performance Features Conformance Reliability Durability Service Response Aesthetics Reputation After researching different types of services, such as long-distance telecommunication companies, credit card companies, motor repair shops and banking industry, Parasuraman et al. (1985) stated that there are ten determinants of Service Quality as follows: Reliability: The ability to perform services to customers right the first time and provide reliable and accurate services as promised. Tangibles: Physical evidence of the services (neat appearance of employees, modern equipment and facility). Security: Providing services without any risk or danger. Access: Easy to approach with services and contact with employees for request. Communication: Understanding and listening ability to customers, knowing what customers want to help. Courtesy: Respect customer, being polite and friendly to customers, express the concern related to customers problems. Credibility: Building and achieve honest and trustworthiness towards customers. Understanding: Knowing the customer what is customers needs. Competence: Possession of the required skills and knowledge to perform the service. 10. Responsiveness: The willingness or readiness of employees when interact with customers requests. However, later in 1988, these above mentioned ten dimensions were cut down to fives by Parasuraman et al. (1985): Tangibility: the appearance and availability of physical equipment, appearance of personnel. Reliability: the ability to perform the service promptly with high quality in the dependable and accurate way. Responsiveness: the readiness to help customers. Assurance: includes four elements, such as Competence, courtesy, credibility and security. The ability to communicate with customers in the knowledgeable and understandable way to persuade customers and convey trust and confidence to them. Empathy: includes access, communication, and understanding the customer. The ability to express the concern with customers, pay attention to their needs and problems in a caring and individualized way. The relationship between Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction Various academics have studied service quality and customer satisfaction in order to understand customer evaluation (Bitner Hubber, 1993; Boulding, Staelin, Kalra, Zeithaml, 1993; Oliver, 1993; Parasuraman, 1985). In many study researching on customer evaluation, quality and satisfaction are used interchangeably since they both presents the comparison of customer expectiation and actual service performance (Lowis and Boom, 1983; Parasuraman, 1985). On the other hand, there is still difference between two concepts. Customer satisfaction is more specific, short-term evaluation while service quality is more general and long-term evaluations (Dabholkar, 1993 and Gotlieb, Grewal and Brown, 1994). In contrast, according to Wilson et al. (2008), customer satisfaction is more permanent than service quality since it generally is a broader term, some dimensions of customer satisfaction are specifically focused on by service quality. As defined above, customer satisfaction has two definitions as transaction-specific and cumulative-specific customer satisfaction (Boulding, 1993). Regardless of whether customer satisfaction has been defined by transaction-specific or cumulative-specific definitions, service quality is one of the most important antecedents of customer satisfaction (Oliver, 1993; Anderson Sullivan, 1993; Fornell et al., 1996; Spreng Macky, 1996). The higher service quality is, the higher satisfaction is (Parasuraman et al., 1985). From the past on, service quality and customer satisfaction is highly related which proved by many studies with practical examples. For instance, Brady et al., (2001) used SERVQUAL in examine the relationship between customer satisfaction and service quality in fast-food restaurants in America and Latin America. SERVQUAL model includes ten aspects: responsiveness, courtesy, communication, reliability, security, competence, access, understanding the customers, credibility and tangibles. Additionally, LISREL was used to conduct the test the same positive relationship in a health care service in Ruyter et al. (1997). Based on the research conducted by Yang et al. (2004) related to E-Service, the study will focus on five Service Quality Dimensions as follows: Reliability: Accuracy and prompt of transaction performance. Attentiveness: Availability to serve customer, willingness to help customer, pay individualized attention and personal contact to customers. Ease of use: Easy to remember URL address, well-structured web-design, easy-to-follow, update information, concise, simple and understandable contents, terms and conditions. Access: Accessibility of different transaction services, availability of communication channels such as chat rooms or emails, details contact of service personnel. Credibility: The reputation of service providers. Based on the above discussions, the hypothesis (H1) is formulated. H1: Service quality has a significant relationship with customers satisfaction in Internet Banking. 2.3.2 The relationship between Price and Customer Satisfaction Concept of Price Price plays an important role in the survival of the company since it decided the competitiveness and revenue of a company. According to Price Theory, price reflects interaction between supply and demand in the market. In other words, price is determined by what a customer is willing to pay and what a seller is willing to accept. With this agreement, both customers and sellers get mutual benefits because customers take advantage of the product usage while sellers get their economic returns. Similarly with Price Theory, Stanton (1985) defined price as the amount of money or goods needed to acquire some combination of another goods and its companying services. These findings are also consistent with other research findings. For example, Kotler (2002) defined price as the total amount customer needs to exchange in order to obtain a benefit of the products or services price is the amount of money charged for a product or service. In order to achieve marketing objectives, The Marketing Mix is essential for firms and includes four P (Product, Price, Promotion, Place) creating general and specific marketing strategies for the whole company (Kotler, 2002). Price is one of the four P in The Marketing Mix which developed by Philip Kotler. The relationship between Price and Customer Satisfaction There is a clear link between customer satisfaction and price perceptions (Kyriazopoulos, 2007). Numerous studies discussed the relationship between price and customer satisfaction. For example, this relationship is proved through the study conducted in German car dea

Link Between Entrepreneurship and Economic Development

Link Between Entrepreneurship and Economic Development In the influential article by Solow (1956), a structure was given for the readers to have a clear view of the linkage between economic growth and the basic important factors of production. He suggested ways in which maximum economic growth is easily achievable through his dynamic state of the art framework. Solows model named as the growth accounting framework, includes two factors; physical capital and labor precisely, whereas technological change being the implicit factor. One of the basic purposes is to tell the reader about the entrepreneurial trends going on in the world. Entrepreneurship is a central focus in the growth policy which is well matched in the Solows model and it is also linked to the economic growth at the same time. It is linked to the economic growth in the sense that it is facilitating the current organizations through spillover of knowledge and in turn increasing the economic growth. According to Acs (2004) and Audretsch (2006) the term knowledge filter for the commercialization of the firm in terms of RD, human capital, university research etc may not be the only sources of economic growth. It has been noticed that the investment in new knowledge has been substantial resulting in growth and decrease in unemployment, but it blocks commercialization of new knowledge investments in turn reducing innovative activity and ultimately declining growth. The growing of entrepreneurship policy to promote economic growth is an attempt to create entrepreneurship capital, or the ability of an economy to generate the start-up of new firms. Porter (1990) said that Entrepreneurship is at the heart of national advantage. The role of entrepreneurship motivates economic growth through innovation and sustaining of competition among competitors. Entrepreneurship is an important part of industrial growth and the backbone of any country for its economic development. The spirit of entrepreneurship brings about enthusiasm, persistence and the ability to seek entrepreneurial opportunities that lead to success. A countrys ability to generate a steady stream of business opportunities can only come about when its people take to entrepreneurial activities. Entrepreneurs are essentially the engines of growth for a country. Entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs are vital drivers of economic growth, employment, innovation and productivity and it has been long understood by analysts and economic theoreticians. Entrepreneurship is the driving force behind the growth in the modern economy. Taking into consideration the topic I have chosen the following dimensions: Entrepreneurship Commercialization Investment Capital New firms Now I will thoroughly discuss each dimension separately Entrepreneurship: According to the Small Business service 2002, the term entrepreneurship is derived from the word entrepreneur, and it is commonly referred to as the activity that individuals connect in that is often characterized by a unique reflection, innovative approaches and risk taking in order to create a new business or grow an existing business. It can be defined as a managerial performance that time after time develop opportunities to bring results beyond the individuals own capabilities, which involves creativity and innovation says Thompson (1999) and it is also a focus on change and opportunity as well as organization-wide management says Wickham (2001). Entrepreneurship is an attitude that covers an individuals motivation and capability, independently or within the context of an organization and to spot an opportunity and to pursue it in order to create wealth or economic success. It is advance thinking outside the box leading to new ideas, new products or services. Better production methodologies and efficient ways of doing things also helps in economic growth according to Khan (2008). Cantillon, (1700s), used the term entrepreneur to refer to a person who took an active risk-bearing role in pursuing opportunity. It is not a 21st century phenomenon as Coulter (2003) says. Deakins and Freel (2003) in their research found out that entrepreneurship acts as a catalyst in bringing about an economic change and helps in economic development. Entrepreneurship is the apparent aptitude and enthusiasm of persons, on their individual base, in groups, inside and outside existing organizations to make out and generate new economic opportunities (new products, new production methods, new organizational schemes and new product-market combinations), and to introduce their ideas in the market, in the face of uncertainty and other obstacles, by making decisions on location, form and the use of resources and institutions says Wennekers and Thurik (1999). Schumpeter in his theory of Economic Development emphasizes the role of the entrepreneur as basic cause of economic development. He describes how the innovating entrepreneur challenges existing firms; by introducing new inventions that make current technologies and products obsolete. This process of creative destruction is the main characteristic of what has been called the Schumpeter Mark I regime. This process of creative accumulation is the main characteristic of the Schumpeter Mark II regime. Commercialization: Commercialization is a process that helps firms achieves a good name in the market economy. New technologies are introduced in the market and they further help in attaining much public attention. Commercialization has been occurring throughout the world and proves helpful in getting much surface attention. The basic component of commercialization of innovation includes patent protection and capital investments. According to the WIPO2007; National Governors Association 2008, both the patent requests along with the easy governmental policies for promotion of capital investments in concept to the new commercial applications are rising. Economic development is possible through successful commercialization. It is a cycle as commercialization increases the economic value by creating high skilled people which in turn is the basis of highly waged jobs and both these lead towards the stability of the economy. New technology in commercialization is playing its vital role as this knowledge when applied appropriately and in the right direction helps in the growth of the economy. A five stage model of commercialization process according to Jolly (1997) has been outlined in order to attain market entry of new procedures, goods and techniques. These stages are as follows: Imaging stage This is the first stage in which the researcher finds the basic research which relates to a new concept. Technology exploration is the main purpose of this stage. Incubating stage In the incubating stage, the already existing techniques and technologies are examined, the ones that are being generically used and tested. Demonstrating stage Prototypes are created in this stage of the new concept. Promoting stage This stage is the beginning of the entry and expansion of the prototypes being created in the demonstrating stage. Sustaining stage The last stage according to Jolly tells us that whether the prototype is able to sustain the in the long run or not (David A. Boulay; Charles T. Worley; Meagan Barnes , 2008) Investment: Investment and entrepreneurship are interrelated with each other. Entrepreneurship is not possible without investment. Investment is required for production of new products and services. It is also required for enhancing knowledge and technology which helps in innovation. In intrapreneurship: conceptualizing entrepreneurial employee behavior by Jeroen de Jong Sander Wennekers in (2008), the major inconsistent elements of entrepreneurship are the investment of personal financial means and the related financial risk taking, a higher degree of self-sufficiency, and legal and fiscal aspects of establishing a new independent business. New ventures started by entrepreneurs are often risky and they require heavy investment. It is a risk that entrepreneurs take; in order to bring out a new innovation in the form of a new product or new service or even a new methodology of production, into existence. The transformation of knowledge into a new product is risky and if the idea clicks the investment is turned into profit which helps in economic development. According to Baumol (2002a, 2002b) the entrepreneurial function of risk taking in the innovation process from the role of larger current corporations that are engaged into routine processes of large scale innovation. In the impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth by M.A. Carreea b.c and A.R. Thurika, a large amount of companies guide to high interest in huge amount of investment and research and development programs leading to high growth where as less amount of investments in research and development lead to slow growth. Capital: Capital is the financial asset that is used for investment in the entrepreneurial activity to start a new venture of innovate the existing one. However, entrepreneurial and risk taking behavior certainly makes apparent itself in the creation of new ventures. Higher the entrepreneurship intensity is, the higher the level of the hidden variable entrepreneurship capital becomes. Entrepreneurship capital means the ability for economic agents to generate new firms. Entrepreneurship has typically been referred to as an action, process, or activity whereas entrepreneurship capital is the ability of the people to generate new firms and help in the economic prosperity of the world. According to G. Hofstede (2002), entrepreneurship capital can also be a part of stock capital as it reflects other numerous factors such as legal, institutional and social factors. A recent study shows that entrepreneurship capital is somewhat a missing link in describing the variations in economic performance says Acs and Audretsch (2003) From the economic perspective, Hebert and Link (1989) distinguish between the supply of financial capital, innovation, allocation of resources among substitute uses and decision-making. Such perspectives generate a high propensity for economic agents to start new firms can be characterized as being rich in entrepreneurship capital. Entrepreneurship capital exerts a positive impact on economic output for a number of reasons. The first being mechanism for knowledge spillovers. Romer (1986), Lucas (1988 and 1992) Grossman and Helpman (1991) recognized that knowledge spillovers are an important mechanism underlying growing expansion. A second way that entrepreneurship capital put forth a positive impact on economic out-put is through the increased competition by high number of enterprises. Jacobs (1969) and Porter (1990) argue that competition is more conducive to knowledge externalities than is local monopoly. A third way that entrepreneurship capital generates economic output is by providing variety among the firms. Not only does entrepreneurship capital generate a greater number of enterprises, but it also increases the multiplicity of enterprises in the location. A key assumption made by Hannan and Freeman (1989) in the population ecology literature is that each new organization represents a unique approach. Entrepreneurship Capital and Economic Growth by Audretsch and Keilbach tells that entrepreneurship capital contributes to output and growth by serving as a means for knowledge spillovers, increasing competition, and by instilling diversity leading to economic growth. New Firms: Schumpeter (1942) gave his work in a very influential manner and since then entrepreneurship has been the hot topic in economic growth and development. With the advent of entrepreneurship, new firms and new employment opportunities are created which brings with it productive innovation says Baumol (2002). It is important to understand factors that promote new firms to economic development. High level of new firms is created with entrepreneurial activities which significantly promotes economic vitality and shows that the economy is dynamic rather than being static. Different factors affect the creation of new firms such as unemployment, population growth, industrial structure, and human capital, the availability of financing and entrepreneurial individuality. Building on the contributions of urbanism Jane Jacobs, Lee, Florida and Gates (2002) showed that social diversity and human capital have constructive relationships with regional innovation production measured by per capita patent production. According to Rynolds, (1994) factors like unemployment, population, industrial scattering and financial availability are important in terms of new firm formation. Armingten and Acs (2002) found that industrial intensity, income growth, population growth and human capital were closely related to new firm formation. Kirchhoff (2002) found academic research and development expenditure to be associated with rates of new firm structure across regions. Studies noted the significance of the function of association in entrepreneurship. Saxenian (1999) found that extensive networks of Chinese and Indian workers help people start new firms with the help of contacts and financial support in Silicon Valley. STUART and SORENSON (2003) argue that businesses cluster because geographical closeness enables them to use social ties necessary to gather together essential resources. Conclusion: Entrepreneurship is a vast topic which covers the major aspects of economic growth. Entrepreneurship is possible with the help of new innovative ideas that gives birth to new firms. For making the innovation real, investment is required in capital and assets. All these dimensions lead towards economic growth of the world.